# Bhanga

> Bhanga (Cannabis sativa L. / Cannabis indica Lam.) is a plant used in Ayurveda. {'use': 'Analgesic and anti-spasmodic (Vedanasthapana, Shulahara)', 'validation': 'Multiple clinical trials and systematic reviews confirm cannabis/cannabinoids effective for chronic pain, neuropathic pain, and spasticity.

## Key facts

- **Botanical name:** Cannabis sativa L. / Cannabis indica Lam.

## Names and identification

| Language | Name |
|----------|------|
| English | Bhanga |
| Latin/Botanical | *Cannabis sativa L. / Cannabis indica Lam.* |

## Which traditional uses are supported by research?

- {'use': '[Analgesic](/reference/analgesic/) and anti-spasmodic (Vedanasthapana, Shulahara)', 'validation': 'Multiple clinical trials and systematic reviews confirm cannabis/cannabinoids effective for chronic pain, neuropathic pain, and spasticity. Sativex (THC:CBD 1:1 spray) approved in 30+ countries for MS spasticity. FDA approved dronabinol and nabilone for pain.'}
- {'use': 'Appetite stimulant and anti-emetic (Deepana, Chhardinashaka)', 'validation': 'Dronabinol (synthetic THC, Marinol) FDA-approved for anorexia in AIDS wasting and chemotherapy-induced nausea/vomiting. CB1 receptor activation in hypothalamus stimulates appetite through modulation of ghrelin and leptin signaling.'}
- {'use': 'Anticonvulsant (Apasmara)', 'validation': 'Epidiolex (pure CBD) FDA-approved for Dravet syndrome and Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Multiple RCTs demonstrate significant seizure reduction. Validates traditional Ayurvedic use of Vijaya for Apasmara (epilepsy).'}

## What do recent clinical trials show?

- Riyaz M 2025. [A user-informed perspective of the toxicological data gap in India's cannabis landscape](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41626284/). *Frontiers in toxicology*. PMID [41626284](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41626284/) · [doi:10.3389/ftox.2025.1734313](https://doi.org/10.3389/ftox.2025.1734313)  
  Unregulated cannabis products in India (Ganja, Charas) pose significant toxicological risks not primarily from cannabinoids but from unpredictable potency, pesticide contamination, and adulteration in absence of quality control.
- Sahasrabuddhe A, Purohit N 2025. [Beyond regulation: Reimagining India's narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances policy with public health perspective](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40443815/). *Indian journal of psychiatry*. PMID [40443815](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40443815/) · [doi:10.4103/indianjpsychiatry.indianjpsychiatry_818_24](https://doi.org/10.4103/indianjpsychiatry.indianjpsychiatry_818_24)  
  Called for evidence-based reform of India's NDPS policy, recognizing that blanket prohibition has not reduced cannabis use but has prevented research into therapeutic applications and created unregulated market risks.

*2 further claims previously listed here could not be traced to a published paper and have been removed. An absence here means we could not identify the source, not that no work exists.*

## Recent safety updates

- {'type': 'Poisoning case', 'detail': 'Rising incidence of synthetic cannabinoid-laced cannabis products in India causing severe toxicity including seizures, rhabdomyolysis, acute kidney injury, and deaths. Unlike natural cannabis, synthetic cannabinoids are full CB1 agonists with much higher toxicity.'}
- {'type': 'Poisoning case', 'detail': 'Pediatric edible cannabis intoxications increasing globally. Children present with lethargy, ataxia, respiratory depression, and coma after accidental ingestion of cannabis edibles. Duration of intoxication can be 12-24 hours.'}
- {'type': 'Antidote', 'detail': 'No specific antidote exists for cannabis intoxication. Treatment is supportive: benzodiazepines for severe anxiety/agitation, IV fluids for CHS-related dehydration. Rimonabant (CB1 antagonist) has been investigated but withdrawn due to psychiatric side effects.'}
- {'type': 'Maximum dose', 'detail': 'Ayurvedic dose of purified Bhanga (Shuddha Vijaya): 125-250 mg of leaf powder per day. Modern medicinal cannabis: THC 2.5-20 mg/day (titrated). FSSAI permits hemp seeds/oil with <0.3% THC as food ingredients.'}
- {'type': 'Safety alert', 'detail': 'FSSAI approved hemp seed, hemp seed oil, and hemp flour as legal food ingredients in India (2021) with THC limit of 0.3%. Multiple Indian states (Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh) have issued hemp cultivation policies distinguishing industrial hemp from narcotic cannabis.'}
- {'type': 'Regulatory update', 'detail': 'AYUSH Ministry exploring framework for Ayurvedic cannabis-based medicines (Vijaya extract) with standardized THC/CBD ratios. Several companies granted licenses for cannabis-based Ayurvedic formulations under state AYUSH departments.'}

## What is it made of?

### Key Active Markers

- Derived from constituent herbs (see individual herb profiles)
- Standardized on primary bioactive markers

**Analytical Methods:** HPLC fingerprinting, TLC (identity), LC-MS/MS (marker quantification)

## Dosage forms and preparation

**Dosage Forms:** Churna (powder, purified), Modaka (sweetmeat preparation), Lepa (external paste), Taila (oil), Bhang Thandai (traditional beverage)

**Standard Dosage:** 125-250mg purified leaf powder (after Shodhana); 500mg-1g in Modaka form. REGULATORY NOTE: Cannabis sativa is a controlled substance in many jurisdictions. Only leaves and seeds are permitted in Ayurvedic use in India (NDPS Act exemption). Use requires applicable licenses.

**Bioavailability:** THC: oral bioavailability 6-20% due to extensive first-pass metabolism; lipid vehicles (ghee, oil) increase to 20-35%. CBD: oral bioavailability 13-19%. Decarboxylation required for THCA/CBDA conversion (110°C, 30-45 min). Traditional fat-based preparations (with milk, ghee) align with modern lipid-based delivery strategies. Nanoemulsion formulations can increase bioavailability 3-5 fold.

**Optimal Timing:** Traditionally administered in the evening or at bedtime with milk and sugar for sedative/analgesic effects; with food to reduce GI effects

**Standardized Extract:** Leaf extract standardized to total cannabinoid content with THC:CBD ratio specified per formulation intent. For Ayurvedic use: typically low-THC preparations. Seed oil: standardized to omega-6:omega-3 ratio (3:1).

**Shelf Life:** 1 year (powder); 2 years (oil, nitrogen-flushed); 6 months (fresh leaf preparations)

**Storage:** Airtight, light-protected containers. Temperature below 20°C. Nitrogen flushing for oil preparations. Secured storage per regulatory requirements. Protect from UV degradation of cannabinoids.

**Marker Compounds:** Delta-9-THC, CBD (Cannabidiol), CBN (Cannabinol), THCA, CBDA, Beta-caryophyllene, [Myrcene](/glossary/compounds-l-o/#myrcene), Alpha-pinene

### Extraction Methods

- Supercritical CO2 extraction for cannabinoid-rich fractions
- Ethanol extraction (95%) for full-spectrum extracts
- Cold-pressed seed oil extraction
- Traditional Bhang preparation: grinding fresh leaves with water
- Hydroalcoholic extraction for balanced cannabinoid-terpene profiles

### Synergistic Combinations

- With [Black Pepper](/herb/black-pepper/) ([Piperine](/reference/piperine/)) for enhanced cannabinoid absorption
- With [Ashwagandha](/herb/ashwagandha/) for [anxiolytic](/reference/anxiolytic/) synergy
- With Jatamamsi for sleep support
- With Shankhapushpi for neurological conditions (traditional)

## Safety, contraindications and cautions

- **Pregnancy:** avoid — FDA states: 'FDA strongly advises against the use of cannabidiol (CBD), tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and marijuana in any form during pregnancy or while breastfeeding.' FDA cites the Surgeon General: 'The U.S. Surgeon General recently advised consumers that marijuana use during pregnancy may affect fetal brain development, because THC can enter the fetal brain from the mother's bloodstream.' FDA reports that 'marijuana may increase the risk of a newborn with low birth weight. Research also suggests increased risk for premature birth and potentially stillbirth.' FDA further states that 'High doses of CBD in pregnant test animals have caused problems with the reproductive system of developing male fetuses': this is an animal finding, FDA gives no species, no per-kg dose and no human-equivalent dose for it, so it cannot be read as a human dose or a human threshold, and no animal dose is carried into the dose field of this record. FDA also states: 'We also know that there is a potential for CBD products to be contaminated with substances that may pose a risk to the fetus or breastfed baby, including THC.' FDA states the limitation that 'There is no comprehensive research studying the effects of CBD on the developing fetus, pregnant mother, or breastfed baby.', so absence of documented harm is not evidence of safety. NCCIH states separately: 'Smoking cannabis during pregnancy has been linked to lower birth weight.' Preparation-specific note, kept separate from the class-level basis above: the only clinical study of a Bhanga preparation excluded pregnant women, so it provides no pregnancy safety data, and the Sodhana review lists 'abortifacient' among the classical attributions for Cannabis sativa leaves, an attribution the review reports without any supporting chemical, animal or clinical data. (What You Should Know About Using Cannabis, Including CBD, When Pregnant or Breastfeeding, FDA Consumer Update, https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/what-you-should-know-about-using-cannabis-including-cbd-when-pregnant-or-breastfeeding; Cannabis (Marijuana) and Cannabinoids: What You Need To Know, NCCIH, https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/cannabis-marijuana-and-cannabinoids-what-you-need-to-know; Tavhare SD, Acharya R, Reddy RG, Dhiman KS. Management of chronic pain with Jalaprakshalana (water-wash) Shodhita (processed) Bhanga (Cannabis sativa L.) in cancer patients with deprived quality of life: An open-label single arm clinical trial. Ayu. 2019 Jan-Mar;40(1):34-43. PMCID PMC6891996, PMID 31831967, doi:10.4103/ayu.AYU_43_19, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6891996/; Maurya SK, Seth A, Laloo D, et al. Sodhana: An Ayurvedic process for detoxification and modification of therapeutic activities of poisonous medicinal plants. Anc Sci Life. 2015 Apr-Jun;34(4):188-197. PMCID PMC4535066, doi:10.4103/0257-7941.160862, https://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4535066/)
- **Breastfeeding:** avoid — LactMed states that THC 'is excreted into breastmilk in small quantities' and that 'The duration of detection of THC in milk has ranged from 6 days to greater than 6 weeks in various studies'; FDA's figure is that 'breastmilk can contain THC for up to six days after use', and FDA adds that 'This THC may affect a newborn's brain development and result in hyperactivity, poor cognitive function, and other long-term consequences.' LactMed: 'A 1-year study found that daily or near daily use might retard the breastfed infant's motor development, but not growth or intellectual development.' LactMed's balancing finding is carried with both of its own caveats: 'This and other studies found that occasional maternal cannabis use during breastfeeding did not have any discernable effects on breastfed infants, but the studies were inadequate to rule out all long-term harm and were conducted at a time when cannabis had relatively low potency.' LactMed also reports the Australia and New Zealand registry suggestion of increased autism spectrum disorder risk from postnatal use, with male infants affected more than female, and its caveat that 'no information on the breastfeeding status of the mothers was presented'; the sIgA and milk-lipid findings and LactMed's judgement that 'The clinical relevance of these changes is questionable'; and 'Cannabis can affect serum prolactin variably and it might decrease milk supply and the duration of lactation.' On hormones, LactMed's finding is limited both in exposure and in population: 'Acute one-time marijuana smoking suppresses serum concentrations of luteinizing hormone and prolactin in nonpregnant, nonlactating women.' That is a single-occasion result obtained in nonpregnant, nonlactating women; it is not a repeated-use result and not a result in lactating women, and LactMed adds that 'The effects of long-term use is unclear, with some studies finding no effect on serum prolactin', that 'hyperprolactinemia has been reported in some chronic cannabis users', and that 'The prolactin level in a mother with established lactation may not affect her ability to breastfeed.' LactMed records that 'In general, professional guidelines recommend that cannabis use should be avoided by nursing mothers, and nursing mothers should be informed of possible adverse effects on infant development from exposure to cannabis compounds in breastmilk.' LactMed lists three further considerations that are carried rather than dropped: 'the possibility of positive urine tests in breastfed infants, which might have legal implications, and the possibility of other harmful contaminants in street drugs'; 'paternal cannabis use may also increase the risk of sudden infant death syndrome in breastfed infants'; and 'Cannabis should not be smoked by anyone in the vicinity of infants because the infants may be exposed by inhaling the smoke.' Almost all of LactMed's human data concern smoked cannabis, so the milk concentration figures it reports are not transferable to an oral leaf powder; LactMed does note that among 20 mothers studied, 'Three patients using edible products had similar cannabinoid levels as those who smoked cannabis'. Preparation-specific note, kept separate from the class-level basis above: the only clinical study of a Bhanga preparation excluded breastfeeding women and provides no lactation data. (Cannabis, Drugs and Lactation Database (LactMed), NCBI Bookshelf NBK501587, record updated 2026 Aug 15, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK501587/; What You Should Know About Using Cannabis, Including CBD, When Pregnant or Breastfeeding, FDA Consumer Update, https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/what-you-should-know-about-using-cannabis-including-cbd-when-pregnant-or-breastfeeding; Tavhare SD, Acharya R, Reddy RG, Dhiman KS. Management of chronic pain with Jalaprakshalana (water-wash) Shodhita (processed) Bhanga (Cannabis sativa L.) in cancer patients with deprived quality of life: An open-label single arm clinical trial. Ayu. 2019 Jan-Mar;40(1):34-43. PMCID PMC6891996, PMID 31831967, doi:10.4103/ayu.AYU_43_19, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6891996/)
- **Contraindication (major):** Populations untested for this preparation: pregnancy, breastfeeding, and organ dysfunction — The only clinical study of a named Bhanga preparation excluded these groups from the outset, so its safety observations say nothing about them. Verbatim exclusion criteria: 'Patients suffering from systemic diseases such as uncontrolled hypertension/diabetes, cardiac/pulmonary/hepatic or renal dysfunctions, HIV/VDRL, pregnant or breast-feeding women, patients with inability to comprehend and complete proposed course of intervention were excluded.' Inclusion was limited to patients 'between age 18 to 70 years' with clinically diagnosed cancer, so no age group outside 18-70 was studied either. The trial also states: 'Precautions had been taken while prescribing TD for Pitta predominant Prakriti (constitution) patients and those who were reported to have chronic addiction(s) of any form.' This entry records untested populations and the trial's own precautions; it is not a contraindication that the trial itself states. For pregnancy and breastfeeding the separate class-level FDA and LactMed entries below give the positive advice to avoid. (Tavhare SD, Acharya R, Reddy RG, Dhiman KS. Management of chronic pain with Jalaprakshalana (water-wash) Shodhita (processed) Bhanga (Cannabis sativa L.) in cancer patients with deprived quality of life: An open-label single arm clinical trial. Ayu. 2019 Jan-Mar;40(1):34-43. PMCID PMC6891996, PMID 31831967, doi:10.4103/ayu.AYU_43_19, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6891996/)
- **Contraindication (major):** Unprocessed (Ashodhita) Bhanga, and excessive use — The trial report states: 'If used in Ashodhita (Unprocessed) form, may cause Madakari (Intoxicant) effects hence, Ayurveda classics have advised Shodhana (Purifying process) of Bhanga before its therapeutic use.' The Sodhana review's Bhanga entry states: 'Its excessive use causes dyspepsia, cough, impotence, melancholy, dropsy, restlessness, and insanity.' Both are classical and ethnopharmacological attributions carried by the two sources; neither source reports chemical, animal or clinical data behind them, and neither quantifies what counts as excessive use. The review also shows that Bhanga is not one standardised product: it names Shodhana methods different from the water-wash used in the trial, namely that Bhanga 'is boiled with Babbula Tvak kvatha for 3 h and the powder obtained is triturated with Godugdha' and that toxic effects 'can also be reduced by triturating with Babbula Tvak kvatha and frying the powder obtained in Cow Ghee'. No source located reports how much cannabinoid any of these methods removes, so no claim of detoxification is made here. (Tavhare SD, Acharya R, Reddy RG, Dhiman KS. Management of chronic pain with Jalaprakshalana (water-wash) Shodhita (processed) Bhanga (Cannabis sativa L.) in cancer patients with deprived quality of life: An open-label single arm clinical trial. Ayu. 2019 Jan-Mar;40(1):34-43. PMCID PMC6891996, PMID 31831967, doi:10.4103/ayu.AYU_43_19, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6891996/; Maurya SK, Seth A, Laloo D, et al. Sodhana: An Ayurvedic process for detoxification and modification of therapeutic activities of poisonous medicinal plants. Anc Sci Life. 2015 Apr-Jun;34(4):188-197. PMCID PMC4535066, doi:10.4103/0257-7941.160862, https://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4535066/)
- **Contraindication (contraindicated):** Pregnancy — FDA states: 'FDA strongly advises against the use of cannabidiol (CBD), tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and marijuana in any form during pregnancy or while breastfeeding.' FDA also states the limitation that 'There is no comprehensive research studying the effects of CBD on the developing fetus, pregnant mother, or breastfed baby.'; absence of documented harm from a given exposure is therefore not evidence of safety. (What You Should Know About Using Cannabis, Including CBD, When Pregnant or Breastfeeding, FDA Consumer Update, https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/what-you-should-know-about-using-cannabis-including-cbd-when-pregnant-or-breastfeeding)
- **Contraindication (contraindicated):** Breastfeeding — FDA advises against use while breastfeeding and states that 'breastmilk can contain THC for up to six days after use.' LactMed gives a longer range from the published literature: 'The duration of detection of THC in milk has ranged from 6 days to greater than 6 weeks in various studies.' LactMed records that 'In general, professional guidelines recommend that cannabis use should be avoided by nursing mothers, and nursing mothers should be informed of possible adverse effects on infant development from exposure to cannabis compounds in breastmilk.' LactMed also states the countervailing context that 'Because of insufficient long-term data on the outcome of infants exposed to cannabis via breastmilk, health professionals' opinions on the acceptability of breastfeeding by cannabis-using mothers varies.' (What You Should Know About Using Cannabis, Including CBD, When Pregnant or Breastfeeding, FDA Consumer Update, https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/what-you-should-know-about-using-cannabis-including-cbd-when-pregnant-or-breastfeeding; Cannabis, Drugs and Lactation Database (LactMed), NCBI Bookshelf NBK501587, record updated 2026 Aug 15, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK501587/)
- **Contraindication (contraindicated):** Psychiatric illness or predisposition to psychosis — MSK's professional Contraindications section states: 'Cannabis products should not be used by patients with psychiatric, cardiovascular, renal, or hepatic illnesses'. MSK's patient-facing warning repeats it: 'Don't take cannabis products if: ... You have psychiatric illnesses that affect mood, thinking, and behavior. Cannabis may make these conditions worse.' NCCIH states: 'The use of cannabis, especially frequent use, has been linked to a higher risk of developing schizophrenia or other psychoses (severe mental illnesses) in people who are predisposed to these illnesses.' (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis; Cannabis (Marijuana) and Cannabinoids: What You Need To Know, NCCIH, https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/cannabis-marijuana-and-cannabinoids-what-you-need-to-know)
- **Contraindication (contraindicated):** Liver disease or hepatic impairment — MSK's professional Contraindications section names hepatic illness: 'Cannabis products should not be used by patients with psychiatric, cardiovascular, renal, or hepatic illnesses'. MSK's patient-facing warning: 'You have kidney, heart, or liver disease. Cannabis may make these worse.' A substance-specific hepatic hazard stands alongside this rather than being folded into a general organ-disease entry: NCCIH states 'CBD use has been associated with liver injury, male reproductive harm, and interactions with other drugs', and that 'diarrhea, sleepiness, abnormalities on tests of liver function, and drug interactions, appear to be due to CBD itself rather than contaminants in CBD products; these effects were observed in some of the people who participated in studies of Epidiolex before its approval as a drug'. FDA likewise lists, among risks of CBD 'Based on clinical studies in humans', 'liver toxicity (damage)'. Those hepatic findings are about CBD, so they bear on cannabis products in which CBD is present; no cited source reports a hepatic finding for the Bhanga preparation, and the only clinical study of that preparation reports no laboratory results. No source cited here states a contraindication to concurrent hepatotoxic drugs, and none is asserted. (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis; Cannabis (Marijuana) and Cannabinoids: What You Need To Know, NCCIH, https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/cannabis-marijuana-and-cannabinoids-what-you-need-to-know; What You Should Know About Using Cannabis, Including CBD, When Pregnant or Breastfeeding, FDA Consumer Update, https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/what-you-should-know-about-using-cannabis-including-cbd-when-pregnant-or-breastfeeding)
- **Contraindication (contraindicated):** Heart disease and cardiovascular illness — MSK's professional Contraindications section names cardiovascular illness: 'Cannabis products should not be used by patients with psychiatric, cardiovascular, renal, or hepatic illnesses'. MSK's patient-facing warning: 'You have kidney, heart, or liver disease. Cannabis may make these worse.' MSK's Adverse Reactions section additionally records, with no route restriction, that 'Cannabis use has been associated with increased risk of rare, but life-threatening cardiac dysrhythmia ... as well as both acute coronary syndrome and chronic cardiovascular disease'. See the cardiac adverse-effect entry below for MSK's separate inhalation-attributed list and for why this warning is not narrowed to inhalation. (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Contraindication (contraindicated):** Kidney disease and renal illness — MSK's professional Contraindications section names renal illness: 'Cannabis products should not be used by patients with psychiatric, cardiovascular, renal, or hepatic illnesses'. MSK's patient-facing warning: 'You have kidney, heart, or liver disease. Cannabis may make these worse.' (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Contraindication (contraindicated):** Children, including accidental ingestion of an oral preparation stored in the home — This is the hazard matched to the route by which Bhanga is taken. NCCIH states: 'There have been many reports of unintentional consumption of cannabis or its products by children, leading to illnesses severe enough to require emergency room treatment or admission to a hospital. Among a group of people who became ill after accidental exposure to candies containing THC, the children generally had more severe symptoms than the adults and needed to stay in the hospital longer.' NCCIH gives no number of cases and does not name the products involved. MSK's separate paediatric warning concerns a drug interaction rather than accidental exposure: 'Don't give cannabis products to children with epilepsy who are on clobazam (Onfi). Cannabis can increase its side effects'. The only clinical study of the Bhanga preparation enrolled adults aged 18 to 70 only, so it provides no paediatric safety data of any kind. (Cannabis (Marijuana) and Cannabinoids: What You Need To Know, NCCIH, https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/cannabis-marijuana-and-cannabinoids-what-you-need-to-know; Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis; Tavhare SD, Acharya R, Reddy RG, Dhiman KS. Management of chronic pain with Jalaprakshalana (water-wash) Shodhita (processed) Bhanga (Cannabis sativa L.) in cancer patients with deprived quality of life: An open-label single arm clinical trial. Ayu. 2019 Jan-Mar;40(1):34-43. PMCID PMC6891996, PMID 31831967, doi:10.4103/ayu.AYU_43_19, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6891996/)
- **Contraindication (major):** Adolescent use and use during brain development — NCCIH states: 'Adolescents using cannabis are four to seven times more likely than adults to develop cannabis use disorder.' MSK states: 'Long-term cannabis use was shown to be detrimental to functional connectivity in the developing brain'. MSK gives no definition of long-term use with this statement. (Cannabis (Marijuana) and Cannabinoids: What You Need To Know, NCCIH, https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/cannabis-marijuana-and-cannabinoids-what-you-need-to-know; Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Contraindication (major):** Older adults — NCCIH states: 'Cannabis use is associated with an increased risk of injury among older adults.' NCCIH gives no effect size, no age threshold and no injury type with this statement. Read alongside NCCIH's orthostatic hypotension statement and MSK's drowsiness, loss of balance and confusion, this is a fall and injury hazard. (Cannabis (Marijuana) and Cannabinoids: What You Need To Know, NCCIH, https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/cannabis-marijuana-and-cannabinoids-what-you-need-to-know; Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Contraindication (major):** Driving or operating machinery — NCCIH states: 'The use of cannabis has been linked to an increased risk of motor vehicle crashes.' MSK's professional short-term adverse effects include drowsiness, somnolence, disorientation, confusion and loss of balance, and MSK's patient-facing side-effect list includes drowsiness, trouble focusing and hallucinations. (Cannabis (Marijuana) and Cannabinoids: What You Need To Know, NCCIH, https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/cannabis-marijuana-and-cannabinoids-what-you-need-to-know; Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Contraindication (major):** Perioperative period, including elective surgery — MSK's Adverse Reactions section states: 'Perioperative morbidity: A large retrospective analysis found cannabis abuse to be associated with increased perioperative morbidity among elective spine surgery patients'. MSK's exposure term is 'cannabis abuse', the study is retrospective and the surgical population is elective spine surgery specifically; MSK reports no sample size, no effect size and no adjustment, and does not extend the finding to other operations. It is carried here because a surgical hazard cannot be raised by a cited source and then dropped, not because it has been shown for other surgery. (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Interaction (major):** Warfarin and other anticoagulants — MSK: 'Warfarin: THC and CBD both elevate international normalized ratio (INR) levels'. MSK's patient-facing warning places it on a do-not-take footing: do not take cannabis products if 'You're taking warfarin (Jantoven or Coumadin) or other blood thinners. Cannabis can increase your risk of bleeding.' Severity basis, stated here so the grading can be checked: every interaction that MSK itself places in its patient-facing 'Don't take cannabis products if' list is graded major in this record. (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Interaction (major):** Sedatives and hypnotics, including lorazepam, diazepam and zolpidem — MSK: 'Sedatives or hypnotics: Sedation and significant pharmacodynamic interactions when taken with cannabis via potentiation of central effects'. MSK's patient-facing do-not-take list names lorazepam (Ativan), diazepam (Valium) and zolpidem (Ambien): 'Taking these medications and cannabis can increase drowsiness.' Severity basis: MSK's do-not-take list. (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Interaction (major):** Nivolumab and related immune checkpoint inhibitors — MSK: 'Immunotherapy (nivolumab): Combined use with cannabis was associated with a reduction in treatment response rates in patients with advanced melanoma, non-small-cell lung cancer, and renal clear cell carcinoma (observational study)'. MSK reports elsewhere on the same page that in that study 'Progression-free survival and overall survival remained unaffected', which is carried here so the finding is not overstated. MSK's patient-facing do-not-take list: 'You're taking nivolumab (Opdivo). Cannabis can lower the response to this medication in patients with advanced melanoma, non-small-cell lung cancer, and renal clear cell carcinoma.' The named cancers describe the populations studied; no therapeutic role for cannabis in any of them is stated or implied by this record. Severity basis: MSK's do-not-take list. (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Interaction (major):** Fluoxetine — MSK: 'Fluoxetine: Case reports of mania resulting from co-administration of cannabis'. MSK's patient-facing do-not-take list pairs fluoxetine with disulfiram: 'You're taking fluoxetine (Prozac) or disulfiram (Antabuse). Taking cannabis with these medications can cause confusion, elevated mood, inflated self-esteem, decreased need for sleep, racing thoughts, and trouble focusing.' MSK separately documents, in its Adverse Reactions section, 'Serotonin syndrome: In a male, with a diagnosis of bipolar disorder managed with fluoxetine, melatonin, and lithium, following use of THC vape pen'; that case involved three concurrent psychotropic drugs and a THC vape pen, so cannabis is one of several exposures and the route was inhalation. Severity basis: MSK's do-not-take list, reinforced by that serotonin syndrome case. (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Interaction (major):** Disulfiram — MSK: 'Disulfiram: Delirium and hypomania resulting from co-administration with cannabis'. MSK's patient-facing do-not-take list: 'You're taking fluoxetine (Prozac) or disulfiram (Antabuse). Taking cannabis with these medications can cause confusion, elevated mood, inflated self-esteem, decreased need for sleep, racing thoughts, and trouble focusing.' Severity basis: MSK's do-not-take list. (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Interaction (major):** Clobazam, particularly in children with epilepsy — MSK: 'Clobazam: CBD increased clobazam levels in epileptic children'. MSK's patient-facing do-not-take instruction: 'Don't give cannabis products to children with epilepsy who are on clobazam (Onfi). Cannabis can increase its side effects'. Severity basis: MSK's do-not-take instruction. MSK attributes the level rise to CBD. (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Interaction (major):** Amphetamines, cocaine, atropine and other sympathomimetic agents — MSK: 'Amphetamines, cocaine, atropine and sympathomimetic agents: Cardiotoxicity may occur with cannabis via additive hypertension and tachycardia'. MSK's patient-facing do-not-take list names them individually and adds pseudoephedrine, epinephrine and dobutamine: 'You're on amphetamines (Adzenys XR-ODT, Evekeo ODT). Heart damage may occur with cannabis'; 'You're taking atropine (Atropen). Taking this medication and cannabis can cause heart damage.'; 'You're on cocaine. Heart damage may occur with cannabis'; 'You're taking pseudoephedrine (such as Sudafed), epinephrine (such as Auvi-Q) or the prescription drug dobutamine (Dobutamine). Taking these medications and cannabis can cause heart damage.' Severity basis: MSK's do-not-take list. (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Interaction (major):** Cyclosporine and mycophenolate mofetil in transplant recipients — MSK: 'Cyclosporine and mycophenolate mofetil: In a patient with end-stage kidney disease with a kidney transplantation, after adding CBD for pain. A drop in the levels of cyclosporine and mycophenolate mofetil levels was observed, thought to be via induction of CYP 3A4 and inhibition of hepatic esterase'. MSK adds: 'CBD was later discontinued.' Severity basis, and the reason this departs from the do-not-take rule used above: MSK does not list this in its patient-facing do-not-take list, but a fall in transplant immunosuppressant levels carries graft-rejection risk, so it is graded major on the clinical consequence. The limitations are that this is a single patient, that MSK attributes the exposure to CBD rather than to whole cannabis, that the mechanism is given as a supposition ('thought to be'), and that MSK reports no clinical outcome for the graft. (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Interaction (moderate):** Buprenorphine — MSK: 'Buprenorphine: A retrospective study found that cannabis use decreased the formation of norbuprenorphine and elevated buprenorphine and norbuprenorphine levels in liver healthy individuals on opioid maintenance therapy substituted with buprenorphine. This interaction may lead to increased or altered opioid activity and risk of intoxication'. Severity basis: not in MSK's do-not-take list; a retrospective pharmacokinetic finding in liver-healthy individuals, with the clinical consequence stated by MSK as a possibility ('may lead to'). (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Interaction (moderate):** Citalopram and escitalopram — MSK: 'Citalopram/Escitalopram: CBD significantly elevated citalopram plasma concentrations in patients taking citalopram or escitalopram. But it is unclear whether this also increased SSRI-mediated adverse effects'. Severity basis: not in MSK's do-not-take list, and MSK itself states the clinical consequence is unclear. (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Interaction (moderate):** Oxazepam and other UGT-glucuronidated drugs — MSK: 'Oxazepam: A study done in human microsomes found a strong inhibitory effect of major cannabinoids on the UGT-mediated glucuronidation of R,S-oxazepam metabolism'. MSK adds: 'Clinical relevance has yet to be determined.' Severity basis: not in MSK's do-not-take list; a human-microsome in vitro finding with clinical relevance undetermined by MSK's own statement, so no clinical magnitude is asserted here. It is carried rather than dropped because oxazepam is also a sedative, and MSK grades sedatives and hypnotics as do-not-take on a separate pharmacodynamic basis. (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Interaction (moderate):** P-glycoprotein substrates — MSK: 'P-glycoprotein substrates: CBD inhibits P-glycoprotein and may influence metabolism of certain drugs'. MSK adds: 'Clinical relevance is not known.' Severity basis: not in MSK's do-not-take list, and MSK states the clinical relevance is not known; no magnitude is asserted here, and MSK names no specific substrate drug. (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Interaction (moderate):** CYP2C19 and CYP2C9 substrates — MSK: 'Cytochrome P450 substrates: In vitro, CBD strongly inhibits CYP2C19 and CYP2C9. Clinical relevance is not known.' This is an in vitro finding for CBD; MSK states the clinical magnitude is not established, and this record does not assert one. Severity basis: not in MSK's do-not-take list; in vitro only. (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Interaction (moderate):** CYP1A2 substrates — MSK: 'Cytochrome P450 substrates: Smoking cannabis induces CYP1A2, with additive effects when smoked together with tobacco, and can affect the intracellular concentration of drugs metabolized by this enzyme'. MSK attributes this induction to smoking; it does not report it for oral cannabis, and this record does not extend it to the oral route by which Bhanga is taken. Severity basis: not in MSK's do-not-take list, and route-limited by MSK's own wording. (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Adverse effect:** Adverse events reported in the only clinical study of the Bhanga preparation (1 of 37 enrolled patients (one reported burning sensation and was dropped from the trial); the article otherwise states no adverse drug reactions were noted among the 24 completers over 4 weeks) (Tavhare SD, Acharya R, Reddy RG, Dhiman KS. Management of chronic pain with Jalaprakshalana (water-wash) Shodhita (processed) Bhanga (Cannabis sativa L.) in cancer patients with deprived quality of life: An open-label single arm clinical trial. Ayu. 2019 Jan-Mar;40(1):34-43. PMCID PMC6891996, PMID 31831967, doi:10.4103/ayu.AYU_43_19, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6891996/)
- **Adverse effect:** Short-term effects (No frequency, incidence or denominator is stated by MSK for any item in either list) (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Adverse effect:** Addiction and cannabis use disorder (NCCIH: adolescents are four to seven times more likely than adults to develop cannabis use disorder; no absolute incidence is given by either source, and MSK lists 'Risk of addiction' with no frequency) (Cannabis (Marijuana) and Cannabinoids: What You Need To Know, NCCIH, https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/cannabis-marijuana-and-cannabinoids-what-you-need-to-know; Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis; Tavhare SD, Acharya R, Reddy RG, Dhiman KS. Management of chronic pain with Jalaprakshalana (water-wash) Shodhita (processed) Bhanga (Cannabis sativa L.) in cancer patients with deprived quality of life: An open-label single arm clinical trial. Ayu. 2019 Jan-Mar;40(1):34-43. PMCID PMC6891996, PMID 31831967, doi:10.4103/ayu.AYU_43_19, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6891996/)
- **Adverse effect:** Withdrawal syndrome and psychotic episodes upon cessation (No frequency stated by the source) (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Adverse effect:** Serotonin syndrome (One case, reported by MSK) (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Adverse effect:** Catatonia requiring electroconvulsive therapy (No frequency stated by the source; MSK cites three references for this item) (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Adverse effect:** Acute toxic hippocampal encephalopathy (One case, reported by MSK) (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Adverse effect:** Cardiac and cerebrovascular events: myocardial infarction, sudden cardiac death, cardiomyopathy, stroke, transient ischemic attack, cannabis arteritis, life-threatening dysrhythmia, acute coronary syndrome and chronic cardiovascular disease (MSK describes the dysrhythmia as 'rare, but life-threatening'; no incidence figure is given for any item) (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis; Tavhare SD, Acharya R, Reddy RG, Dhiman KS. Management of chronic pain with Jalaprakshalana (water-wash) Shodhita (processed) Bhanga (Cannabis sativa L.) in cancer patients with deprived quality of life: An open-label single arm clinical trial. Ayu. 2019 Jan-Mar;40(1):34-43. PMCID PMC6891996, PMID 31831967, doi:10.4103/ayu.AYU_43_19, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6891996/)
- **Adverse effect:** Non-ischaemic cardiomyopathy with cardioembolism, radial artery thrombosis and gangrene requiring amputation (One case, reported by MSK) (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Adverse effect:** Cannabis hyperemesis syndrome, and recurrent severe vomiting (MSK: cyclic attacks of nausea and vomiting in chronic cannabinoid users, attributed to two deaths) (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis; Cannabis (Marijuana) and Cannabinoids: What You Need To Know, NCCIH, https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/cannabis-marijuana-and-cannabinoids-what-you-need-to-know)
- **Adverse effect:** Chronic bronchitis in regular users, and pneumothorax (No frequency stated by the source; MSK's bronchitis item is a comparison of regular users with non-users) (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Adverse effect:** Memory effects and effects on the developing brain (No frequency stated by the source) (Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)
- **Adverse effect:** Orthostatic hypotension with risk of fainting and falls (No frequency stated by the source) (Cannabis (Marijuana) and Cannabinoids: What You Need To Know, NCCIH, https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/cannabis-marijuana-and-cannabinoids-what-you-need-to-know)
- **Adverse effect:** CBD-specific effects: decreased alertness, mood changes, decreased appetite, diarrhoea, liver injury, extreme sleepiness and male reproductive harm (No frequency stated by either source; NCCIH states the liver-function and related effects 'were observed in some of the people who participated in studies of Epidiolex before its approval as a drug') (Cannabis (Marijuana) and Cannabinoids: What You Need To Know, NCCIH, https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/cannabis-marijuana-and-cannabinoids-what-you-need-to-know; What You Should Know About Using Cannabis, Including CBD, When Pregnant or Breastfeeding, FDA Consumer Update, https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/what-you-should-know-about-using-cannabis-including-cbd-when-pregnant-or-breastfeeding)
- **Adverse effect:** Product contamination and label inaccuracy (No frequency or proportion of products is stated by either source) (Cannabis (Marijuana) and Cannabinoids: What You Need To Know, NCCIH, https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/cannabis-marijuana-and-cannabinoids-what-you-need-to-know; What You Should Know About Using Cannabis, Including CBD, When Pregnant or Breastfeeding, FDA Consumer Update, https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/what-you-should-know-about-using-cannabis-including-cbd-when-pregnant-or-breastfeeding; Cannabis, Drugs and Lactation Database (LactMed), NCBI Bookshelf NBK501587, record updated 2026 Aug 15, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK501587/)
- **Adverse effect:** Serious lung injury linked to THC-containing vaping products (NCCIH: 'many of the reported cases'; no number is given) (Cannabis (Marijuana) and Cannabinoids: What You Need To Know, NCCIH, https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/cannabis-marijuana-and-cannabinoids-what-you-need-to-know)
- **Adverse effect:** Effects in the breastfed infant (One matched cohort of 68 exposed and 68 control infants, plus individual case reports; no incidence rate is given) (Cannabis, Drugs and Lactation Database (LactMed), NCBI Bookshelf NBK501587, record updated 2026 Aug 15, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK501587/)
- **Adverse effect:** Possible increased risk of autism spectrum disorder after postnatal cannabis use (A large registry study in Australia and New Zealand; LactMed gives no sample size and no effect size) (Cannabis, Drugs and Lactation Database (LactMed), NCBI Bookshelf NBK501587, record updated 2026 Aug 15, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK501587/)
- **Adverse effect:** Changes in breastmilk composition and milk supply (One preliminary study of secretory IgA in 14 women, two studies of milk lipid content, and survey data on breastfeeding duration) (Cannabis, Drugs and Lactation Database (LactMed), NCBI Bookshelf NBK501587, record updated 2026 Aug 15, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK501587/)
- **Dose and duration limits:** Human oral dose, from the only clinical study of a named Bhanga preparation. No animal dose is reported or substituted anywhere in this field. The trial administered Jalaprakshalana (water-wash) Shodhita Bhanga as a leaf powder in size 0 capsules, 250 mg three times a day at 9 am, 3 pm and 9 pm, orally, with 50 ml of cow's milk mixed with 4 g of crystal sugar as an adjuvant, for 4 weeks, in adults aged 18 to 70 with cancer. That is 750 mg of powder per day. The trial states its basis for the unit dose: 'Recommended dose of water-wash processed cannabis leaves as per Ayurvedic pharmacopoeia of India is 250 mg'. That sentence is the trial's citation of the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India; the pharmacopoeial text itself could not be read on a permitted host on 2026-09-11, because pharmacopoeia.gov.in and www.pharmacopoeia.gov.in did not resolve (DNS NXDOMAIN, curl exit code 6), so the API figure is reported here only as quoted by the trial and not as verified against the monograph. What this dose is and is not: it is the amount given in one open-label, single-arm, uncontrolled 4-week study in which 37 patients enrolled and 24 completed. It is not a maximum, not a ceiling, not a tested-safe dose and not a dose for any group the trial excluded (pregnant or breastfeeding women, people with uncontrolled hypertension or diabetes, cardiac, pulmonary, hepatic or renal dysfunction, HIV/VDRL, and anyone outside 18-70). No cited source states a maximum daily quantity, a maximum duration, or a cumulative limit for Bhanga, and none states a dose for cannabis generally: the MSKCC About Herbs cannabis page has a 'Dosage' heading whose content is marked 'OneMSK Only' and carries no public text, and the NCCIH, FDA and LactMed pages state no dose. The dose above is specific to the water-wash Shodhita form; no source located gives a dose for Bhanga processed by the other Shodhana methods described in the Sodhana review, or for unprocessed Bhanga. Regulatory status: this record states INSUFFICIENT DATA on the Indian regulatory position of Bhanga. Two Ministry of Ayush documents were requested directly on 2026-09-11 and returned no content (https://ayush.gov.in/resources/pdf/quality_standards/Drugs-and-Cosmetics-Act-Rules.pdf returned HTTP 404; https://www.ayush.gov.in/docs/guideline_safety_toxicity.pdf returned HTTP 403), so the gazetted Schedule E(1) text could not be read on a permitted host, and no claim about Schedule E(1), Rule 161(2) or prescription-only status is made here. This is a statement about what could and could not be retrieved in this session, not a finding that no such rule exists. The trial notes for context that its drug was procured 'after taking due approval of the state excise authority' and that the study was registered as CTRI/2016/02/006658. Because no ceiling is established, the psychiatric, cardiac, renal, hepatic, respiratory, paediatric-ingestion and dependence hazards recorded above apply to internal use at any quantity. (Tavhare SD, Acharya R, Reddy RG, Dhiman KS. Management of chronic pain with Jalaprakshalana (water-wash) Shodhita (processed) Bhanga (Cannabis sativa L.) in cancer patients with deprived quality of life: An open-label single arm clinical trial. Ayu. 2019 Jan-Mar;40(1):34-43. PMCID PMC6891996, PMID 31831967, doi:10.4103/ayu.AYU_43_19, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6891996/; Maurya SK, Seth A, Laloo D, et al. Sodhana: An Ayurvedic process for detoxification and modification of therapeutic activities of poisonous medicinal plants. Anc Sci Life. 2015 Apr-Jun;34(4):188-197. PMCID PMC4535066, doi:10.4103/0257-7941.160862, https://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4535066/; Cannabis, Memorial Sloan Kettering About Herbs, https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/cannabis)

Each statement above was checked by four independent reviewers and published only if its source could be confirmed to state it.

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Canonical version of this page: https://nighantu.ageayurveda.com/herb/bhanga/

## Sources

- Amidha Ayurveda Herb Database (700+ herbs, CC-BY-4.0)
- Web research (clinical trials, WHO monographs, safety databases)
- Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India

Published by Age Ayurveda in the Nighantu. Educational reference only, not medical advice.
Incorporates material from the Amidha Ayurveda Herb Database under CC BY 4.0.